I have added a great deal of content to this page in an effort to answer some if not all the questions people ask me on a regular basis.
GENERAL RULES CONCERNING EXORCISM
1. A priest--one who is expressly and particularly authorized by the Ordinary--when he intends to perform an exorcism over persons tormented by the devil, must be properly distinguished for his piety, prudence, and integrity of life. He should fulfil this devout undertaking in all constancy and humility, being utterly immune to any striving for human aggrandizement, and relying, not on his own, but on the divine power. Moreover, he ought to be of mature years, and revered not alone for his office but for his moral qualities.
2. In order to exercise his ministry rightly, he should resort to a great deal more study of the matter (which has to be passed over here for the sake of brevity), by examining approved authors and cases from experience; on the other hand, let him carefully observe the few more important points enumerated here.
3. Especially, he should not believe too readily that a person is possessed by an evil spirit; but he ought to ascertain the signs by which a person possessed can be distinguished from one who is suffering from some illness, especially one of a psychological nature. Signs of possession may be the following: ability to speak with some facility in a strange tongue or to understand it when spoken by another; the faculty of divulging future and hidden events; display of powers which are beyond the subject's age and natural condition; and various other indications which, when taken together as a whole, build up the evidence.
4. In order to understand these matters better, let him inquire of the person possessed, following one or the other act of exorcism, what the latter experienced in his body or soul while the exorcism was being performed, and to learn also what particular words in the form had a more intimidating effect upon the devil, so that hereafter these words may be employed with greater stress and frequency.
5. He will be on his guard against the arts and subterfuges which the evil spirits are wont to use in deceiving the exorcist. For oft times they give deceptive answers and make it difficult to understand them, so that the exorcist might tire and give up, or so it might appear that the afflicted one is in no wise possessed by the devil.
6. Once in a while, after they are already recognized, they conceal themselves and leave the body practically free from every molestation, so that the victim believes himself completely delivered. Yet the exorcist may not desist until he sees the signs of deliverance.
7. At times, moreover, the evil spirits place whatever obstacles they can in the way, so that the patient may not submit to exorcism, or they try to convince him that his affliction is a natural one. Meanwhile, during the exorcism, they cause him to fall asleep, and dangle some illusion before him, while they seclude themselves, so that the afflicted one appears to be freed.
8. Some reveal a crime which has been committed and the perpetrators thereof, as well as the means of putting an end to it. Yet the afflicted person must beware of having recourse on this account to sorcerers or necromancers or to any parties except the ministers of the Church, or of making use of any superstitious or forbidden practice.
9. Sometimes the devil will leave the possessed person in peace and even allow him to receive the holy Eucharist, to make it appear that he has departed. In fact, the arts and frauds of the evil one for deceiving a man are innumerable. For this reason the exorcist must be on his guard not to fall into this trap.
10. Therefore, he will be mindful of the words of our Lord (Mt 17.20), to the effect that there is a certain type of evil spirit who cannot be driven out except by prayer and fasting. Therefore let him avail himself of these two means above all for imploring the divine assistance in expelling demons, after the example of the holy fathers; and not only himself, but let him induce others, as far as possible, to do the same.
11. If it can be done conveniently the possessed person should be led to church or to some other sacred and worthy place, where the exorcism will be held, away from the crowd. But if the person is ill, or for any valid reason, the exorcism may take place in a private home.
12. The subject, if in good mental and physical health, should be exhorted to implore God's help, to fast, and to fortify himself by frequent reception of penance and holy communion, at the discretion of the priest. And in the course of the exorcism he should be fully recollected, with his intention fixed on God, whom he should entreat with firm faith and in all humility. And if he is all the more grievously tormented, he ought to bear this patiently, never doubting the divine assistance.
13. He ought to have a crucifix at hand or somewhere in sight. If relics of the saints are available, they are to be applied in a reverent way to the breast or the head of the person possessed (the relics must be properly and securely encased and covered). One will see to it that these sacred objects are not treated improperly or that no injury is done them by the evil spirit. However, one should not hold the holy Eucharist over the head of the person or in any way apply it to his body, owing to the danger of desecration.
14. The exorcist must not digress into senseless prattle nor ask superfluous questions or such as are prompted by curiosity, particularly if they pertain to future and hidden matters, all of which have nothing to do with his office. Instead, he will bid the unclean spirit keep silence and answer only when asked. Neither ought he to give any credence to the devil if the latter maintains that he is the spirit of some saint or of a deceased party, or even claims to be a good angel.
15. But necessary questions are, for example: the number and name of the spirits inhabiting the patient, the time when they entered into him, the cause thereof, and the like. As for all jesting, laughing, and nonsense on the part of the evil spirit--the exorcist should prevent it or contemn it, and he will exhort the bystanders (whose number must be very limited) to pay no attention to such goings on; neither are they to put any question to the subject. Rather they should intercede for him to God in all humility and urgency.
16. Let the priest pronounce the exorcism in a commanding and authoritative voice, and at the same time with great confidence, humility, and fervor; and when he sees that the spirit is sorely vexed, then he oppresses and threatens all the more. If he notices that the person afflicted is experiencing a disturbance in some part of his body or an acute pain or a swelling appears in some part, he traces the sign of the cross over that place and sprinkles it with holy water, which he must have at hand for this purpose.
17. He will pay attention as to what words in particular cause the evil spirits to tremble, repeating them the more frequently. And when he comes to a threatening expression, he recurs to it again and again, always increasing the punishment. If he perceives that he is making progress, let him persist for two, three, four hours, and longer if he can, until victory is attained.
18. The exorcist should guard against giving or recommending any medicine to the patient, but should leave this care to physicians.
19. While performing the exorcism over a woman, he ought always to have assisting him several women of good repute, who will hold on to the person when she is harassed by the evil spirit. These assistants ought if possible to be close relatives of the subject and for the sake of decency the exorcist will avoid saying or doing anything which might prove an occasion of evil thoughts to himself or to the others.
20. During the exorcism he shall preferably employ words from Holy Writ, rather than forms of his own or of someone else. He shall, moreover, command the devil to tell whether he is detained in that body by necromancy, by evil signs or amulets; and if the one possessed has taken the latter by mouth, he should be made to vomit them; if he has them concealed on his person, he should expose them; and when discovered they must be burned. Moreover, the person should be exhorted to reveal all his temptations to the exorcist.
21. Finally, after the possessed one has been freed, let him be admonished to guard himself carefully against falling into sin, so as to afford no opportunity to the evil spirit of returning, lest the last state of that man become worse than the former.
CHAPTER II: RITE FOR EXORCISM _top
1. The priest delegated by the Ordinary to perform this office should first go to confession or at least elicit an act of contrition, and, if convenient, offer the holy Sacrifice of the Mass, and implore God's help in other fervent prayers. He vests in surplice and purple stole. Having before him the person possessed (who should be bound if there is any danger), he traces the sign of the cross over him, over himself, and the bystanders, and then sprinkles all of them with holy water. After this he kneels and says the Litany of the Saints, exclusive of the prayers which follow it. All present are to make the responses. At the end of the litany he adds the following:
Antiphon: Do not keep in mind, O Lord, our offences or those of our parents, nor take vengeance on our sins. Our Father (the rest inaudibly until:)
P: And lead us not into temptation.
All: But deliver us from evil.
Psalm 53
After the psalm the priest continues:
P: Save your servant.
All: Who trusts in you, my God.
P: Let him (her) find in you, Lord, a fortified tower.
All: In the face of the enemy.
P: Let the enemy have no power over him (her).
All: And the son of iniquity be powerless to harm him (her). Lord, send him
(her) aid from your holy place.
All: And watch over him (her) from Zion.
P: Lord, heed my prayer.
All: And let my cry be heard by you.
P: The Lord be with you.
All: May He also be with you.
Let us pray. God, whose nature is ever merciful and forgiving, accept our prayer
that this servant of yours, bound by the fetters of sin, may be pardoned by your
loving kindness.
Holy Lord, almighty Father, everlasting God and Father of our
Lord Jesus Christ, who once and for all consigned that fallen and apostate
tyrant to the flames of hell, who sent your only-begotten Son into the world to
crush that roaring lion; hasten to our call for help and snatch from ruination
and from the clutches of the noonday devil this human being made in your image
and likeness. Strike terror, Lord, into the beast now laying waste your
vineyard. Fill your servants with courage to fight manfully against that
reprobate dragon, lest he despise those who put their trust in you, and say with
Pharaoh of old: "I know not God, nor will I set Israel free." Let your mighty
hand cast him out of your servant, N., + so he may no longer hold captive this
person whom it pleased you to make in your image, and to redeem through your
Son; who lives and reigns with you, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, God,
forever and ever.
All: Amen.
2. Then he commands the demon as follows:
I command you, unclean spirit, whoever you are, along with all your minions now attacking this servant of God, by the mysteries of the incarnation, passion, resurrection, and ascension of our Lord Jesus Christ, by the descent of the Holy Spirit, by the coming of our Lord for judgment, that you tell me by some sign your name, and the day and hour of your departure. I command you, moveover, to obey me to the letter, I who am a minister of God despite my unworthiness; nor shall you be emboldened to harm in any way this creature of God, or the bystanders, or any of their possessions.
3. Next he reads over the possessed person these selections from the Gospel, or at least one of them.
A Lesson from the holy Gospel according to St. John
John 1.1-14
As he says these opening words he signs himself and the possessed on the brow, lips, and breast.
A Lesson from the holy Gospel according to St. Mark
Mark 16.15-18
At that time Jesus said to His disciples: "Go into the whole world and preach
the Gospel to all creation. He that believes and is baptized will be saved; he
that does not believe will be condemned. And in the way of proofs of their
claims, the following will accompany those who believe: in my name they will
drive out demons; they will speak in new tongues; they will take up serpents in
their hands, and if they drink something deadly, it will not hurt them; they
will lay their hands on the sick, and these will recover."
A Lesson from the holy Gospel according to St. Luke
Luke 10.17-20
At that time the seventy-two returned in high spirits. "Master," they said,
"even the demons are subject to us because we use your name!" "Yes," He said to
them, "I was watching Satan fall like lightning that flashes from heaven. But
mind: it is I that have given you the power to tread upon serpents and
scorpions, and break the dominion of the enemy everywhere; nothing at all can
injure you. Just the same, do not rejoice in the fact that the spirits are
subject to you, but rejoice in the fact that your names are engraved in heaven."
A Lesson from the holy Gospel according to St. Luke
Luke 11.14-22
At that time Jesus was driving out a demon, and this particular demon was dumb.
The demon was driven out, the dumb man spoke, and the crowds were enraptured.
But some among the people remarked: "He is a tool of Beelzebul, and that is how
he drives out demons!" Another group, intending to test Him, demanded of Him a
proof of His claims, to be shown in the sky. He knew their inmost thoughts. "Any
kingdom torn by civil strife," He said to them, "is laid in ruins; and house
tumbles upon house. So, too, if Satan is in revolt against himself, how can his
kingdom last, since you say that I drive out demons as a tool of Beelzebul. And
furthermore: if I drive out demons as a tool of Beelzebul, whose tools are your
pupils when they do the driving out? Therefore, judged by them, you must stand
condemned. But, if, on the contrary, I drive out demons by the finger of God,
then, evidently the kingdom of God has by this time made its way to you. As long
as a mighty lord in full armor guards his premises, he is in peaceful possession
of his property; but should one mightier than he attack and overcome him, he
will strip him of his armor, on which he had relied, and distribute the spoils
taken from him."
P: Lord, heed my prayer.
All: And let my cry be heard by you.
P: The Lord be with you.
All: May He also be with you.
Let us pray. Almighty Lord, Word of God the Father, Jesus Christ, God and Lord of all creation; who gave to your holy apostles the power to tramp underfoot serpents and scorpions; who along with the other mandates to work miracles was pleased to grant them the authority to say: "Depart, you devils!" and by whose might Satan was made to fall from heaven like lightning; I humbly call on your holy name in fear and trembling, asking that you grant me, your unworthy servant, pardon for all my sins, steadfast faith, and the power--supported by your mighty arm--to confront with confidence and resolution this cruel demon. I ask this through you, Jesus Christ, our Lord and God, who are coming to judge both the living and the dead and the world by fire. All: Amen.
4. Next he makes the sign of the cross over himself and the
one possessed, places the end of the stole on the latter's neck, and, putting
his right hand on the latter's head, he says the following in accents filled
with confidence and faith:
P: See the cross of the Lord; begone, you hostile powers!
All: The stem of David, the lion of Juda's tribe has conquered.
P: Lord, heed my prayer.
All: And let my cry be heard by you.
P: The Lord be with you.
All: May He also be with you.
Let us pray.
God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, I appeal to your holy name, humbly
begging your kindness, that you graciously grant me help against this and every
unclean spirit now tormenting this creature of yours; through Christ our Lord.
All: Amen.
Exorcism _top
I cast you out, unclean spirit, along with every satanic
power of the enemy, every spectre from hell, and all your fell companions; in
the name of our Lord Jesus + Christ Begone and stay far from this creature of
God. + For it is He who commands you, He who flung you headlong from the heights
of heaven into the depths of hell. It is He who commands you, He who once
stilled the sea and the wind and the storm. Hearken, therefore, and tremble in
fear, Satan, you enemy of the faith, you foe of the human race, you begetter of
death, you robber of life, you corrupter of justice, you root of all evil and
vice? seducer of men, betrayer of the nations, instigator of envy, font of
avarice, fomentor of discord, author of pain and sorrow. Why, then, do you stand
and resist, knowing as you must that Christ the Lord brings your plans to
nothing? Fear Him, who in Isaac was offered in sacrifice, in Joseph sold into
bondage, slain as the paschal lamb, crucified as man, yet triumphed over the
powers of hell. (The three signs of the cross which follow are traced on the
brow of the possessed person). Begone, then, in the name of the Father, + and of
the Son, + and of the Holy + Spirit. Give place to the Holy Spirit by this sign
of the holy + cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, who lives and reigns with the
Father and the Holy Spirit, God, forever and ever.
All: Amen.
P: Lord, heed my prayer.
All: And let my cry be heard by you.
P: The Lord be with you.
All: May He also be with you.
Let us pray. God, Creator and defender of the human race, who made man in your
own image, look down in pity on this your servant, N., now in the toils of the
unclean spirit, now caught up in the fearsome threats of man's ancient enemy,
sworn foe of our race, who befuddles and stupefies the human mind, throws it
into terror, overwhelms it with fear and panic. Repel, O Lord, the devil's
power, break asunder his snares and traps, put the unholy tempter to flight. By
the sign + (on the brow) of your name, let your servant be protected in mind and
body. (The three crosses which follow are traced on the breast of the possessed
person). Keep watch over the inmost recesses of his (her) + heart; rule over his
(her) + emotions; strengthen his (her) + will. Let vanish from his (her) soul
the temptings of the mighty adversary. Graciously grant, O Lord, as we call on
your holy name, that the evil spirit, who hitherto terrorized over us, may
himself retreat in terror and defeat, so that this servant of yours may
sincerely and steadfastly render you the service which is your due; through
Christ our Lord.
All: Amen.
Exorcism _top
I adjure you, ancient serpent, by the judge of the living and the dead, by your Creator, by the Creator of the whole universe, by Him who has the power to consign you to hell, to depart forthwith in fear, along with your savage minions, from this servant of God, N., who seeks refuge in the fold of the Church. I adjure you again, + (on the brow) not by my weakness but by the might of the Holy Spirit, to depart from this servant of God, N., whom almighty God has made in His image. Yield, therefore, yield not to my own person but to the minister of Christ. For it is the power of Christ that compels you, who brought you low by His cross. Tremble before that mighty arm that broke asunder the dark prison walls and led souls forth to light. May the trembling that afflicts this human frame, + (on the breast) the fear that afflicts this image (on the brow) of God, descend on you. Make no resistance nor delay in departing from this man, for it has pleased Christ to dwell in man. Do not think of despising my command because you know me to be a great sinner. It is God + Himself who commands you; the majestic Christ + who commands you. God the Father + commands you; God the Son + commands you; God the Holy + Spirit commands you. The mystery of the cross commands + you. The faith of the holy apostles Peter and Paul and of all the saints commands + you. The blood of the martyrs commands + you. The continence of the confessors commands + you. The devout prayers of all holy men and women command + you. The saving mysteries of our Christian faith command + you.
Depart, then, transgressor. Depart, seducer, full of lies and cunning, foe of virtue, persecutor of the innocent. Give place, abominable creature, give way, you monster, give way to Christ, in whom you found none of your works. For He has already stripped you of your powers and laid waste your kingdom, bound you prisoner and plundered your weapons. He has cast you forth into the outer darkness, where everlasting ruin awaits you and your abettors. To what purpose do you insolently resist? To what purpose do you brazenly refuse? For you are guilty before almighty God, whose laws you have transgressed. You are guilty before His Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, whom you presumed to tempt, whom you dared to nail to the cross. You are guilty before the whole human race, to whom you proferred by your enticements the poisoned cup of death.
Therefore, I adjure you, profligate dragon, in the name of
the spotless + Lamb, who has trodden down the asp and the basilisk, and overcome
the lion and the dragon, to depart from this man (woman) + (on the brow), to
depart from the Church of God + (signing the bystanders). Tremble and flee, as
we call on the name of the Lord, before whom the denizens of hell cower, to whom
the heavenly Virtues and Powers and Dominations are subject, whom the Cherubim
and Seraphim praise with unending cries as they sing: Holy, holy, holy, Lord God
of Sabbath. The Word made flesh + commands you; the Virgin's Son + commands you;
Jesus + of Nazareth commands you, who once, when you despised His disciples,
forced you to flee in shameful defeat from a man; and when He had cast you out
you did not even dare, except by His leave, to enter into a herd of swine. And
now as I adjure you in His + name, begone from this man (woman) who is His
creature. It is futile to resist His + will. It is hard for you to kick against
the + goad. The longer you delay, the heavier your punishment shall be; for it
is not men you are contemning, but rather Him who rules the living and the dead,
who is coming to judge both the living and the dead and the world by fire.
All: Amen.
P: Lord, heed my prayer.
All: And let my cry be heard by you.
P: The Lord be with you.
All: May He also be with you.
Let us pray. God of heaven and earth, God of the angels and
archangels, God of the prophets and apostles, God of the martyrs and virgins,
God who have power to bestow life after death and rest after toil; for there is
no other God than you, nor can there be another true God beside you, the Creator
of heaven and earth, who are truly a King, whose kingdom is without end; I
humbly entreat your glorious majesty to deliver this servant of yours from the
unclean spirits; through Christ our Lord.
All: Amen.
Exorcism _top
Therefore, I adjure you every unclean spirit, every spectre from hell, every satanic power, in the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, who was led into the desert after His baptism by John to vanquish you in your citadel, to cease your assaults against the creature whom He has formed from the slime of the earth for His own honour and glory; to quail before wretched man, seeing in him the image of almighty God, rather than his state of human frailty. Yield then to God, + who by His servant, Moses, cast you and your malice, in the person of Pharaoh and his army, into the depths of the sea. Yield to God, + who, by the singing of holy canticles on the part of David, His faithful servant, banished you from the heart of King Saul. Yield to God, + who condemned you in the person of Judas Iscariot, the traitor. For He now flails you with His divine scourges, + He in whose sight you and your legions once cried out: "What have we to do with you, Jesus, Son of the Most High God? Have you come to torture us before the time?" Now He is driving you back into the everlasting fire, He who at the end of time will say to the wicked: "Depart from me, you accursed, into the everlasting fire which has been prepared for the devil and his angels." For you, O evil one, and for you followers there will be worms that never die. An unquenchable fire stands ready for you and for your minions, you prince of accursed murderers, father of lechery, instigator of sacrileges, model of vileness, promoter of heresies, inventor of every obscenity.
Depart, then, + impious one, depart, + accursed one, depart
with all your deceits, for God has willed that man should be His temple. Why do
you still linger here? Give honour to God the Father + almighty, before whom
every knee must bow. Give place to the Lord Jesus + Christ, who shed His most
precious blood for man. Give place to the Holy + Spirit, who by His blessed
apostle Peter openly struck you down in the person of Simon Magus; who cursed
your lies in Annas and Saphira; who smote you in King Herod because he had not
given honour to God; who by His apostle Paul afflicted you with the night of
blindness in the magician Elyma, and by the mouth of the same apostle bade you
to go out of Pythonissa, the soothsayer. Begone, + now! Begone, + seducer! Your
place is in solitude; your abode is in the nest of serpents; get down and crawl
with them. This matter brooks no delay; for see, the Lord, the ruler comes
quickly, kindling fire before Him, and it will run on ahead of Him and encompass
His enemies in flames. You might delude man, but God you cannot mock. It is He
who casts you out, from whose sight nothing is hidden. It is He who repels you,
to whose might all things are subject. It is He who expels you, He who has
prepared everlasting hellfire for you and your angels, from whose mouth shall
come a sharp sword, who is coming to judge both the living and the dead and the
world by fire.
All: Amen.
5. All the above may be repeated as long as necessary, until
the one possessed has been fully freed.
6. It will also help to say devoutly and often over the afflicted person the Our
Father, Hail Mary, and the Creed, as well as any of the prayers given below.
7. The Canticle of our Lady, with the doxology; the Canticle of Zachary, with
the doxology.
A Simple Exorcism
for Priests or Laity
Prayer Against Satan and the Rebellious Angels
Published by Order of His Holiness Pope Leo XIII
The following is a simple exorcism prayer that can be said by priests or laity. The term “exorcism” does NOT always denote a solemn exorcism involving a person possessed by the devil. In general, the term denotes prayers to “curb the power of the devil and prevent him from doing harm.” As St. Peter had written in Holy Scripture, “your adversary the devil, as a roaring lion, goeth about seeking whom he may devour.” (1 St.Peter 5,8)
The Holy Father exhorts priests to say this prayer as often as possible, as a simple exorcism to curb the power of the devil and prevent him from doing harm. The faithful also may say it in their own name, for the same purpose, as any approved prayer. Its use is recommended whenever action of the devil is suspected, causing malice in men, violent temptations and even storms and various calamities. It could be used as a solemn exorcism (an official and public ceremony, in Latin), to expel the devil. It would then be said by a priest, in the name of the Church and only with a Bishop's permission.
Prayer to St. Michael the Archangel
In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.
Most glorious Prince of the Heavenly Armies, Saint Michael
the Archangel, defend us in “our battle against principalities and powers,
against the rulers of this world of darkness, against the spirits of wickedness
in the high places” (Eph., 6,12). Come to the assistance of men whom God has
created to His likeness and whom He has redeemed at a great price from the
tyranny of the devil. Holy Church venerates thee as her guardian and protector;
to thee, the Lord has entrusted the souls of the redeemed to be led into heaven.
Pray therefore the God of Peace to crush Satan beneath our feet, that he may no
longer retain men captive and do injury to the Church. Offer our prayers to the
Most High, that without delay they may draw His mercy down upon us; take hold of
“the dragon, the old serpent, which is the devil and Satan”, bind him and cast
him into the bottomless pit ... “that he may no longer seduce the nations” (Apoc.
20, 2-3).
Exorcism
In the Name of Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, strengthened by the intercession
of the Immaculate Virgin Mary, Mother of God, of Blessed Michael the Archangel,
of the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul and all the Saints. (and powerful in the
holy authority of our ministry)*, we confidently undertake to repulse the
attacks and deceits of the devil.
* Lay people omit the parenthesis above.
Psalm 67
God arises; His enemies are scattered and those who hate Him flee before Him. As smoke is driven away, so are they driven; as wax melts before the fire, so the wicked perish at the presence of God.
V. Behold the Cross of the Lord, flee bands of enemies.
R. The Lion of the tribe of Juda, the offspring of David, hath conquered.
V. May Thy mercy, Lord, descend upon us.
R. As great as our hope in Thee.
(The crosses below indicate a blessing to be given if a priest recites the Exorcism; if a lay person recites it, they indicate the Sign of the Cross to be made silently by that person.)
We drive you from us, whoever you may be, unclean spirits, all satanic powers, all infernal invaders, all wicked legions, assemblies and sects. In the Name and by the power of Our Lord Jesus Christ, + may you be snatched away and driven from the Church of God and from the souls made to the image and likeness of God and redeemed by the Precious Blood of the Divine Lamb. +
Most cunning serpent, you shall no more dare to deceive the human race, persecute the Church, torment God's elect and sift them as wheat. + The Most High God commands you, + He with whom, in your great insolence, you still claim to be equal. “God who wants all men to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth” (I Tim. 2,4). God the Father commands you. + God the Son commands you. + God the Holy Ghost commands you. + Christ, God's Word made flesh, commands you; + He who to save our race outdone through your envy, “humbled Himself, becoming obedient even unto death” (Phil.2,8); He who has built His Church on the firm rock and declared that the gates of hell shall not prevail against Her, because He will dwell with Her “all days even to the end of the world” (Matt. 28,20). The sacred Sign of the Cross commands you, + as does also the power of the mysteries of the Christian Faith. + The glorious Mother of God, the Virgin Mary, commands you; + she who by her humility and from the first moment of her Immaculate Conception crushed your proud head. The faith of the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, and of the other Apostles commands you. + The blood of the Martyrs and the pious intercession of all the Saints command you. +
Thus, cursed dragon, and you, diabolical legions, we adjure you by the living God, + by the true God, + by the holy God, + by the God “who so loved the world that He gave up His only Son, that every soul believing in Him might not perish but have life everlasting” (St.John 3, 16); stop deceiving human creatures and pouring out to them the poison of eternal damnation; stop harming the Church and hindering her liberty. Begone, Satan, inventor and master of all deceit, enemy of man's salvation. Give place to Christ in Whom you have found none of your works; give place to the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church acquired by Christ at the price of His Blood. Stoop beneath the all-powerful Hand of God; tremble and flee when we invoke the Holy and terrible Name of Jesus, this Name which causes hell to tremble, this Name to which the Virtues, Powers and Dominations of heaven are humbly submissive, this Name which the Cherubim and Seraphim praise unceasingly repeating: Holy, Holy, Holy is the Lord, the God of Hosts.
V. O Lord, hear my prayer.
R. And let my cry come unto Thee.
V. May the Lord be with thee.
R. And with thy spirit.
Let us pray.
God of heaven, God of earth, God of Angels, God of Archangels, God of Patriarchs, God of Prophets, God of Apostles, God of Martyrs, God of Confessors, God of Virgins, God who has power to give life after death and rest after work: because there is no other God than Thee and there can be no other, for Thou art the Creator of all things, visible and invisible, of Whose reign there shall be no end, we humbly prostrate ourselves before Thy glorious Majesty and we beseech Thee to deliver us by Thy power from all the tyranny of the infernal spirits, from their snares, their lies and their furious wickedness. Deign, O Lord, to grant us Thy powerful protection and to keep us safe and sound. We beseech Thee through Jesus Christ Our Lord. Amen.
V. From the snares of the devil,
R. Deliver us, O Lord.
V. That Thy Church may serve Thee in peace and liberty:
R. We beseech Thee to hear us.
V. That Thou may crush down all enemies of Thy Church:
R. We beseech Thee to hear us.
(Holy water is sprinkled in the place where we may be.)
To exorcise means to deliver a person from the presence or influence of evil spirits. That the devil, within the limits allowed by God, has retained a certain power over men even after the coming of Christ is clearly testified by Holy Scripture and the history of the Church. Jesus drove out devils from the possessed and He bestowed this power upon His apostles and disciples. In the early times of the Christian era many lay persons possessed this power as a charism.
It is in harmony with reason and faith to assume that the devil has greater power over the unbaptized in consequence of original sin. For this reason, at a very early date, exorcisms were performed repeatedly over the catechumens in preparation for baptism. To perform these exorcisms and, in general, to exorcise persons possessed by or under the influence of evil spirits exorcists were ordained.
The rite speaks of exorcists as spiritual physicians endowed with the power of healing. This may also refer to bodily afflictions caused by the devil; once the influence of the devil is broken by the exorcism, the affliction ceases.
The other duties of the exorcist stood in close relation to this principal function of the order. According to the usual interpretation of the instruction read to the ordinands, he was to direct persons under exorcism, and for that reason barred from Holy Communion, when to withdraw. Furthermore, it was his duty at sacred functions to administer the water for the washing of hands to the officiating priest. The latter ceremony symbolizes purification from sin, hence a banishing of the influence of the evil spirits; it was fitting, therefore, to assign this duty to the exorcist.
In our days all baptismal exorcisms are embodied in the solemn rite of baptism, and are performed by the priest or deacon who baptizes. To exorcise a person possessed by the devil an explicit permission of the diocesan bishop is required, and it can be given only to a priest.
If the exorcistate is conferred during Mass, this is done:
Saturday before Passion Sunday: after the Kyrie.
Holy Saturday: after the Gloria.
Saturdays of Ember weeks: after the third lesson.
On other days, if the Mass has Gloria: after the Gloria; if the Mass has no
Gloria, after the Kyrie.
The Call. The bishop, with his mitre on, sits on the faldstool before the middle of the altar. The archdeacon bids the candidates come forward; the notary reads their names:
Let those come forward who are to be ordained to the office of exorcist: N. N., etc.
Each one answers adsum, goes before the altar and kneels, holding the burning candle in his right hand.
The Instruction. When all are assembled, the bishop addresses them as follows:
Dearly beloved sons, as you are about to be ordained to the office of exorcist, you must understand the office which you receive. The duty of the exorcist is to cast out devils, to direct the people that he who is barred from Communion should withdraw, and to administer water at the sacred functions. You receive, therefore, the power to lay your hands upon the possessed; and by the imposition of your hands, the grace of the Holy Spirit, and the words of the exorcism, the unclean spirits shall be cast out from the bodies of the possessed.
Accordingly, as you cast out devils from others, seek to remove from your own minds and bodies all uncleanness and iniquity, lest you be overcome by those evil spirits whom, in virtue of your office, you cast out of others. Through the exercise of your office learn to rule over evil habits, lest the enemy discover in your lives anything which he might claim as his own. For then you will consistently command the evil spirits in others when you first overcome their manifold wickedness in yourselves. May the Lord through His Holy Spirit grant that you may accomplish this.
Here the candles are laid aside.
The Bestowal of the Office. The candidates now come up to the bishop, and each touches the book which he presents to them, saying:
Receive, and commit to memory, and have the power to lay your hands upon the possessed, be they baptized or catechumens.
Prayer. The bishop rises and prays for the candidates kneeling before him:
Let us, dearly beloved brethren, humbly beseech God, the Father Almighty, that He may graciously + bless these His servants for the office of exorcist. May they be spiritual commanders, to cast out of the bodies of the possessed the evil spirits with all their manifold wickedness. Through His only-begotten Son, Jesus Christ, our Lord, who lives and reigns with Him in the unity of the Holy Spirit, God, forever and ever. R. Amen.
The bishop, with his mitre off, turns to the altar and says:
Let Us Pray
Let us bend our knees. R. Arise.
Turning again to the candidates kneeling before him, the bishop prays:
Holy Lord, Father Almighty, eternal God, vouchsafe to bless these Thy servants for the office of exorcist. May they have power and authority, by the imposition of their hands and the word of prayer, to restrain the unclean spirits and be the approved physicians of Thy Church, endowed with the power of healing and with heavenly strength. Through our Lord Jesus Christ, Thy Son, who lives and reigns with Thee in the unity of the Holy Spirit, God, forever and ever. R. Amen.
Procedure after an ordination.
Witchcraft was inextricably mixed with politics. Matthew Paris tells us how in 1232 the Chief Justice Hubert de Burgh, Earl of Kent, (Shakespeare's “gentle Hubert” in King John), was accused by Peter do Roches, Bishop of Winchester, of having won the favour of Henry III through “charms and incantations”. In 1324 there was a terrific scandal at Coventry when it was discovered that a number of the richest and most influential burghers of the town had long been consulting with Master John, a professional necromancer, and paying him large sums to bring about by his arts the death of Edward II and several nobles of the court. Alice Perrers, the mistress pf Edward III, was not only reputed to have infatuated the old King by occult spells, but her physician (believed to be a mighty sorcerer) was arrested on a charge of confecting love philtres and talismans. Henry V, in the autumn of 1419, prosecuted his stepmother, Joan of Navarre, for attempting to kill him by witchcraft, “in the most horrible manner that one could devise.” The conqueror of Agincourt was exceedingly worried about the whole wretched business, as also was the Archbishop of Canterbury, who ordered public prayers for the King's safety. In the reign of his son, Henry VI, in 1441, one of the highest and noblest ladies in the realm, Eleanor Cobham, Duchess of Gloucester, was arraigned for conspiring with “a clerk”, Roger Bolingbroke, “a most notorious evoker of demons”, and “the most famous scholar in the whole world in astrology in magic”, to procure the death of the young monarch by sorcery, so that the Duke of Gloucester, Henry's uncle and guardian, might succeed to the crown. In this plot were further involved Canon Thomas Southwell, and a “relapsed witch”, that is to say, one who had previously (eleven years before) been incarcerated upon grave suspicion of black magic, Margery Jourdemayne. Bolingbroke, whose confession implicated the Duchess, was hanged; Canon Southwell died in prison; the witch in Smithfield was “burn'd to Ashes”, since her offence was high treason. The Duchess was sentenced to a most degrading public penance, and imprisoned for life in Peel Castle, Isle of Man. Richard III, upon seizing the throne in 1483, declared that the marriage of his brother, Edward IV, with the Lady Elizabeth Grey, had been brought about by “sorcery and witchcraft”, and further that “Edward's wife, that monstrous witch, has plotted with Jane Shore to waste and wither his body.” Poor Jane Shore did most exemplary penance, walking the flinty streets of London barefoot in her kirtle. In the same year when Richard wanted to get rid of the Duke of Buckingham, his former ally, one of the chief accusations he launched was that the Duke consulted with a Cambridge “necromancer” to compass and devise his death.
One of the most serious and frightening events in the life of James VII of Scotland (afterwards James I of England) was the great conspiracy of 1590, organized by the Earl of Bothwell. James with good reason feared and hated Bothwell, who, events amply proved, was Grand Master of more than one hundred witches, all adepts in poisoning, and all eager to do away with the King. In other words, Francis Stewart, Earl of Bothwell, was the centre and head of a vast political plot. A widespread popular panic was the result of the discovery of this murderous conspiracy.
In France as early as 583, when the infant son and heir of King Chilperic, died of dysentery, as the doctors diagnosed it, it came to light that Mumolus, one of the leading officials of the court, had been secretly administering to the child medicines, which he obtained from “certain witches of Paris”. These potions were pronounced by the physicians to be strong poisons. In 1308, Guichard, Bishop of Troyes, was accused of having slain by sorcery the Queen of Philip IV of France (1285-1314), Jeanne of Navarre, who died three years before. The trial dragged on from 1308 to 1313, and many witnesses attested on oath that the prelate had continually visited certain notorious witches, who supplied him philtres and draughts. In 1315, during the brief reign (1314-1316) of Louis X, the eldest son of Philip IV, was hanged Enguerrand de Marigny, chamberlain, privy councillor, and chief favourite of Philip, whom, it was alleged, he had bewitched to gain the royal favour. The fact, however, which sealed his doom was his consultation with one Jacobus de Lor, a warlock, who was to furnish a nostrum warranted to put a very short term to the life of King Louis. Jacobus strangled himself in prison.
In 1317 Hugues Géraud, Bishop of Cahors, was executed by Pope John XXII, who reigned 1316-1334, residing at Avignon. Langlois says that the Bishop had attempted the Pontiff's life by poison procured from witches.
Perhaps the most resounding of all scandals of this kind in France was the La Voison case, 1679-1682, when it was discovered that Madame de Montespan had for years been trafficking with a gang of poisoners and sorcerers, who plotted the death of the Queen and the Dauphan, so that Louis XIV might be free to wed Athénais de Montespan, whose children should inherit the throne. The Duchesse de Fontanges, a beautiful young country girl, who had for a while attracted the wayward fancy of Louis, they poisoned out of hand. Money was poured out like water, and it has been said that “the entire floodtide of poison, witchcraft and diabolism was unloosed” to attain the ends of that “marvellous beauty” (so Mme. de Sévigné calls her), the haughty and reckless Marquise de Montespan. In her thwarted fury she well nigh resolved to sacrifice Louis himself to her overweening ambition and her boundless pride. The highest names in France - the Princesse de Tingry, the Duchesse de Vitry, the Duchesse de Lusignan, the Duchesse de Bouillon, the Comtesse de Soissons, the Duc de Luxembourg, the Marguis de Cessac - scores of the older aristocracy, were involved, whilst literally hundreds of venal apothecaries, druggists, pseudo-alchemists, astrologers, quacks, warlocks, magicians, charlatans, who revolved round the ominous and terrible figure of Catherine La Voisin, professional seeress, fortune-teller, herbalist, beauty-specialist, were caught in the meshes of law. No less than eleven volumes of François Ravaison's huge work, Archives de la Bastille, are occupied with this evil crew and their doings, their sorceries and their poisonings.
During the reign of Urban VIII, Maffeo Barberini, 1623-1644, there was a resounding scandal at Rome when it was discovered that “after many invocations of demons” Giacinto Contini, nephew of the Cardinal d'Ascoli, had been plotting with various accomplices to put an end to the Pope's life, and thus make way for the succession of his uncle to the Chair of Peter. Tommaso Orsolini of Recanate, moreover, after consulting with certain scryers and planetarians, readers of the stars, was endeavouring to bribe the apothecary Carcurasio of Naples to furnish him with a quick poison, which might be mingled with the tonics and electuaries prescribed for the ailing Pontiff, (Ranke, History of the Popes, ed. 1901, Vol. III, pp. 375-6).
To sum up, as is well observed by Professor Kittredge, who more than once emphasized “I have no belief in the black art or in the interference of demons in the daily life of mortals”, it makes no difference whether any of the charges were true or whether the whole affairs were hideous political chicanery. “Anyhow, it reveals the beliefs and the practices of the age.”
Throughout the centuries witchcraft was universally held to be a dark and horrible reality; it was an ever-present, fearfully ominous menace, a thing most active, most perilous, most powerful and true. Some may consider these mysteries and cantrips and invocations, these sabbats and rendezvous, to have been merest mummery and pantomime, but there is no question that the psychological effect was incalculable, and harmful in the highest degree. It was, to use a modern phrase, “a war of nerves”. Jean Bodin, the famous juris-consult (1530-90) whom Montaigne acclaims to be the highest literary genius of his time, and who, as a leading member of the Parlement de Paris, presided over important trials, gives it as his opinion that there existed, no only in France, a complete organization of witches, immensely wealthy, of almost infinite potentialities, most cleverly captained, with centres and cells in every district, utilizing an espionage in ever land, with high-placed adherents at court, with humble servitors in the cottage. This organization, witchcraft, maintained a relentless and ruthless war against the prevailing order and settled state. No design was too treacherous, no betrayal was too cowardly, no blackmail too base and foul. The Masters lured their subjects with magnificent promises, they lured and deluded and victimized. Not the least dreaded and dreadful weapon in their armament was the ancient and secret knowledge of poisons (veneficia), of herbs healing and hurtful, a tradition and a lore which had been handed down from remotest antiquity.
Little wonder, then, that later social historians, such as Charles Mackay and Lecky, both absolutely impartial and unprejudiced writers, sceptical even, devote many pages, the result of long and laborious research, to witchcraft. The did not believe in witchcraft as in any sense supernatural, although perhaps abnormal. But the centuries of which they were writing believed intensely in it, and it was their business as scholars to examine and explain the reasons for such belief. It was by no means all mediæval credulity and ignorance and superstition. MacKay and Lecky fully recognized this, as indeed they were in all honesty bound to do. They met with facts, hard facts, which could neither have been accidents nor motiveless, and these facts must be accounted for and elucidated. The profoundest thinkers, the acutest and most liberal minds of their day, such men as Cardan; Trithemius; the encylcopædic Delrio; Bishop Binsfeld; the learned physician, Caspar Peucer; Jean Bodin; Sir Edward Coke, “father of the English law”; Francis Bacon; Malebranche; Bayle; Glanvil; Sir Thomas Browne; Cotton Mather; all these, and scores besides, were convinced of the dark reality of witchcraft, of the witch organization. Such a consensus of opinion throughout the years cannot be lightly dismissed.
The literature of the subject, discussing it in every detail, from every point of view, from every angle, is enormous. For example, such a Bibliography as that of Yve-Plessis, 1900, which deals only with leading French cases and purports to be no more than a supplement to the Bibliographies of Græsse, the Catalogues of the Abbé Sépher, Ouvaroff, the comte d'Ourches, the forty-six volumes of Dr. Hoefer, Shieble, Stanislas de Guaita, and many more, lists nearly 2,000 items, and in a note we are warned that the work is very far from complete. The Manuel Bibliographique, 3 vols., 1912, of Albert L. Caillet, gives 11,648 items. Caillet has many omissions, some being treatises of the first importance. The library of witchcraft may without exaggeration be said to be incalculable.
It is hardly disputed that in the whole vast literature of witchcraft, the most prominent, the most important, the most authorative volume is the Malleus Maleficarum (The Witch Hammer) of Heinrich Kramer (Henricus Institoris) and James Sprenger. The date of the first edition of the Malleus cannot be fixed with absolute certainty, but the likeliest year is 1486. There were, at any rate, fourteen editions between 1487 and 1520, and at least sixteen editions between 1574 and 1669. These were issued from the leading German, French and Italian presses. The latest reprint of the original text of the Malleus is to be found in the noble four volume collection of Treatises on Witchcraft, “sumptibus Claudii Bourgeat”, 4to., Lyons, 1669. There is a modern German translation by J.W.R. Schmidt, Der Hexehammer, 3 vols., Berlin, 1906; second edition, 1922-3. There is also an English translation with Introduction, Bibliography, and Notes by Montague Summers, published John Rodker, 1928.
The Malleus acquired especial weight and dignity from the famous Bull of Pope Innocent VIII, Summis desiderantes affectibus of 9 December, 1484, in which the Pontiff, lamenting the power and prevalence of the witch organization, delegates Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger as inquisitors of these pravities throughout Northern Germany, particularly in the provinces and dioceses of Mainz, Cologne, Tréves, Salzburg, and Bremen, granting both and either of them an exceptional authorization, and by Letters Apostolic requiring the Bishop of Strasburg, Albrecht von Bayern (1478-1506), not only to take steps to publish and proclaim the Bull, but further to afford Kramer and Sprenger every assistance, even calling in, if necessary, the help of the secular arm.
This Bull, which was printed as the Preface to the Malleus, was thus, comments Dr. H.C. Lea, “spread broadcast over Europe”. In fact, “it fastened on European jurisprudence for nearly three centuries the duty of combating” the Society of Witches. The Malleus lay on the bench of every magistrate. It was the ultimate, irrefutable, unarguable authority. It was implicitly accepted not only by Catholic but by Protestant legislature. In fine, it is not too much to say that the Malleus Maleficarum is among the most important, wisest, and weightiest books of the world.
It has been asked whether Kramer or Sprenger was principally responsible for the Malleus, but in the case of so close a collaboration any such inquiry seems singularly superflous and nugatory. With regard to instances of jointed authorship, unless there be some definite declaration on the part of one of the authors as to his particular share in a work, or unless there be some unusual and special circumstances bearing on the point, such perquisitions and analysis almost inevitably resolve themselves into a cloud of guess-work and bootless hazardry and vague perhaps. It becomes a game of literary blind-man's-bluff.
Heinrich Kramer was born at Schlettstadt, a town of Lower Alsace, situated some twenty-six miles southwest of Strasburg. At an early age he entered the Order of S. Dominic, and so remarkable was his genius that whilst still a young man he was appointed to the position of Prior of the Dominican House at his native town, Schlettstadt. He was a Preacher-General and a Master of Sacred Theology. P.G. and S.T.M., two distinctions in the Dominican Order. At some date before 1474 he was appointed an Inquisitor for the Tyrol, Salzburg, Bohemia, and Moravia. His eloquence in the pulpit and tireless activity received due recognition at Roma, and for many years he was Spiritual Director of the great Dominican church at Salzburg, and the right-hand of the Archbishop of Salzburg, a munificent prelat who praises him highly in a letter which is still extant. In the late autumn or winter of 1485 Kramer had already drawn up a learned instruction or treatise on the subject of witchcraft. This circulated in manuscript, and is (almost in its entirety) incorporated in the Malleus. By the Bull of Innocent VIII in December, 1484, he had already been associated with James Sprenger to make inquisition for and try witches and sorcerers. In 1495, the Master General of the Order, Fr. Joaquin de Torres, O.P., summoned Kramer to Venice in order that he might give public lectures, disputations which attracted crowded audiences, and which were honoured by the presence and patronage of the Patriarch of Venice. He also strenuously defended the Papal supremacy, confuting the De Monarchia of the Paduan jurisconsult, Antonio degli Roselli. At Venice he resided at the priory of Santi Giovanni e Paolo (S. Zanipolo). During the summer of 1497, he had returned to Germany, and was living at the convent of Rohr, near Regensburg. On 31 January, 1500, Alexander VI appointed him as Nuncio and Inquisitor of Bohemia and Moravia, in which provinces he was deputed and empowered to proceed against the Waldenses and Picards, as well as against the adherents of the witch-society. He wrote and preached with great fervour until the end. He died in Bohemia in 1505.
His chief works, in addition to the Malleus, are: Several Discourses and Various Sermons upon the Most Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist; Nuremberg, 1496; A Tract Confuting the Errors of Master Antonio degli Roselli; Venice, 1499; and The Shield of Defence of the Holy Roman Church Against the Picards and Waldenses; an incunabulum, without date, but almost certainly 1499-1500. Many learned authors quote and refer to these treatises in terms of highest praise.
James Sprenger was born in Basel, 1436-8. He was admitted a novice in the Dominican house of this town in 1452. His extraordinary genius attracted immediate attention, and his rise to a responsible position was very rapid. According to Pierre Hélyot, the Fransican (1680-1716), Histoire des Ordres Religieux, III (1715), ch. XXVI, in 1389 Conrad of Prussia abolished certain relaxations and abuses which had crept into the Teutonic Province of the Order of S. Dominic, and restored the Primitive and Strict Obedience. He was closely followed by Sprenger, whose zealous reform was so warmly approved that in 1468 the General Chapter ordered him to lecture on the sentences of Peter Lombard at the University of Cologne, to which he was thus officially attached. A few years later he proceeded Master of Theology, and was elected Prior and Regent of Studies of the Cologne Convent, one of the most famous and frequented Houses of the Order. On 30 June, 1480, he was elected Dean of the Faculty of Theology at the University. His lecture-room was thronged, and in the following year, at the Chapter held in Rome, the Master General of the Order, Fra Salvo Cusetta, appointed him Inquisitor Extraordinary for the Provinces of Mainz, Trèves, and Cologne. His activities were enormous, and demanded constant journeyings through the very extensive district to which he had been assigned. In 1488 he was elected Provincial of the whole German Province, an office of the first importance. It is said that his piety and his learning impressed all who came in contact with him. In 1495 he was residing at Cologne, and here he received a letter from Alexander VI praising his enthusiasm and his energy. He died rather suddenly, in the odour of sanctity - some chronicles call him “Beatus” - on 6 December, 1495, at Strasburg, where he is buried.
Among Sprenger's other writings, excepting the Malleus, are The Paradoxes of John of Westphalia Refuted, Mainz, 1479, a closely argued treatise; and The Institution and Approbation of the Confraternity of the Most Holy Rosary, which was first erected at Cologne on 8 September in the year 1475, Cologne, 1475. Sprenger may well be called the “Apostle of the Rosary”. None more fervent than he in spreading this Dominican elevation. His zeal enrolled thousands, including the Emperor Frederick III, in the Confraternity of the Most Holy Rosary, which was enriched with many indulgences by a Bull of Sixtus IV. It has been observed that the writings of Father James Sprenger on the Rosary are well approved by many learned men, Pontiffs, Saints and Theologians alike. There can be no doubt that Sprenger was a mystic of the highest order, a man of most saintly life.
The Dominican chroniclers, such as Quétif and Echard, number Kramer and Sprenger among the glories and heroes of their Order.
Certain it is that the Malleus Maleficarum is the most solid, the most important work in the whole vast library of witchcraft. One turns to it again and again with edification and interest: From the point of psychology, from the point of jurisprudence, from the point of history, it is supreme. It has hardly too much to say that later writers, great as they are, have done little more than draw from the seemingly inexhaustible wells of wisdom which the two Dominicans, Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger, have given us in the Malleus Maleficarum.
What is most surprising is the modernity of the book. There is hardly a problem, a complex, a difficulty, which they have not foreseen, and discussed, and resolved.
Here are cases which occur in the law-courts to-day, set out with the greatest clarity, argued with unflinching logic, and judged with scrupulous impartiality.
It is a work which must irresistibly capture the attention of all mean who think, all who see, or are endeavouring to see, the ultimate reality beyond the accidents of matter, time and space.
The Malleus Maleficarum is one of the world's few books written sub specie aeternitatis.
Montague Summers.
7 October, 1946.
In Festo SS. Rosarii.
Wicca is "a pagan nature religion having is roots in pre-
Christian Europe and undergoing a 20th-century revival" (AHD3).
Only the most recently published dictionaries contain an entry for
it; RHUD2 dates it 1975. "Wicca" is a revival of an ‘Old English’
word that you can find in older dictionaries by looking up the
Etymology of either "witch" or "wicked". In Old English, Wicca
Was the masculine form of a word meaning "wizard" or "sorcerer".
(The feminine form was wicce. "Witch" comes from wicce.)
Wicca and wicce came from a proto-Germanic (not Celtic)
Wikkjak, "one who wakes the dead", the first element of which
Comes from the same Indo-European root as "wake".
Wicca is one of the most influential traditions of modern Paganism. Also known by the name Witchcraft, it began to emerge publicly in its modern form in the late 1940's. It is an initiatory path, a mystery tradition that guides its initiates to a deep communion with the powers of Nature and of the human psyche, leading to a spiritual transformation of the self. Women who follow this path are initiated as Priestesses and men are initiated as Priests.
'Wicca is both a religion and a Craft. ... As a religion - like any other religion - its purpose is to put the individual and the group in harmony with the divine creative principal of the Cosmos, and its manifestation at all levels. As a Craft, its purpose is to achieve practical ends by psychic means, for good, useful and healing purposes. In both aspects, the distinguishing characteristics of Wicca are its Nature- based attitude, its small group autonomy with no gulf between priesthood and 'congregation', and its philosophy of creative polarity at all levels, from Goddess and God to Priestess and Priest.'
Janet and Stewart Farrar, Eight Sabbats For Witches, Robert Hale, London, 1981.
Wicca is sometimes called the Craft of the Wise, or, more commonly, the Craft.
Those wishing to be initiated must be at least 18 years of age. Wicca does not seek converts and initiation is never offered. Initiation must be asked for and is only given to those who have proved themselves suitable. It is traditional to wait a year and a day before being accepted into the Craft, although in practice this varies.
In Britain, there are a number of Craft traditions: Gardnerian, Alexandrian, Traditional, Hereditary (Family), Dianic and Hedgewitch. In other countries, other traditions have evolved to reflect their own culture. Gardnerians claim lineage from Gerald Gardner, who was most responsible for the revival of the modern Craft. Alexandrians descend from Alex and Maxine Sanders, who developed Gardner's ideas. Traditionalists claim their methods pre-date the modern revival and have been passed down from generation to generation. Hereditaries claim their traditions have been passed on by particular families through relations of blood and marriage. Dianic craft is based on feminist principles and Hedgewitches follow a more solitary path.
For some practitioners of the Craft, Witchcraft and Wicca are seen as two distinct paths, for others, the boundaries between the two are more blurred. Certainly, the word "Wicca" is less evocative and emotive than "Witchcraft" but whatever their perceived differences, they both share the same commonality in their beliefs and practices.
Witches celebrate eight seasonal festivals called Sabbats. Craft rituals, like all Pagan rites, are often conducted out of doors and involve simple rites to celebrate the seasons and the gift of life. Craft ritual is a means of contacting the Divine beyond our individual lives, but also a way of understanding our inner psyche and contacting the Divine within.
Witchraft is a path of magic and love, the movement of a deep poetry of the soul, a sharing and joining with the mysteries of Nature and the Old Gods.
The ideal way to obtain training in Wicca is through a local teacher or coven. However, in reality there are insufficient covens to cater for the needs of all those who wish to learn more about Wicca. Below are some organisations in the UK which offer training and can help those who wish to learn more before trying to contact a local group, or for whom there is no local training available. Please send an SAE when writing to these organisations, and allow a few weeks for a reply.
· Marian Green, BCM Quest, London WC1N 3XX. Runs a correspondence course on Natural Magic based on the philosophy in her books, and also runs seminars and workshops in the UK and Europe.
· Wicca Study Group, BM Deosil, London WC1N 3XX. Viviane and Chris Crowley run an introductory correspondence course for those interested in exploring Wicca. Evening classes are held in London in the autumn, while one-day workshops are held throughout the year in London, and in other parts of Britain and Europe by arrangement.
Doctrines Wicca has no central doctrines. However, many
witches adhere to the Wiccan Rede - "An it harm none, do what thou wilt"
- and the Law of Threefold Return - that whatever you do, whether for good or
bad, will return to you threefold. Most Wiccan traditions are initiatory, the
Gardnerian and Alexandrian traditions. Following the form of female initiation
by a male, and male by a female. Both use three degrees of advancement, Second
and Third Degree witches being regarded as High Priestess or High Priest. The
degrees are not regarded as hierarchical but as a mark of proficiency and
experience in the Craft, with all witches being regarded as equal. Both these
traditions are based on autonomous covens (groups of witches, traditionally
thirteen in number) and centres around the worship of the Goddess and her
consort, the Horned God, represented by the High Priestess and High Priest of
the coven. Polarity in all things is stressed - female/male, dark/light,
negative/positive - and the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is celebrated,
along with fertility, through the eight seasonal festivals (see Paganism).
Nature is honoured and all things, including oneself, are regarded as part of
nature.
Traditional witches are those who follow practices established before Gardner.
Hereditary witches also follow old practices and claim an ancestor or lineage of
ancestors who were initiated witches. They are normally initiated into the Craft
by a family member, with mothers initiating daughters and fathers initiating
sons. Traditional and Hereditary covens are generally run by the High Priest
rather than the High Priestess, and they tend to work robed rather than skyclad,
preferring a black hooded cloak or robe.
Dianic covens stress the worship of the Goddess, sometimes exclusively, and as
such are largely feminist and/or matriarchal in orientation. The emphasis is on
rediscovering and reclaiming female power and divinity, and consciousness
raising.
The Seax-Wica tradition has no oath of secrecy and is open to anyone, being
readily available in the form of Buckland's book The Tree: Complete Book of
Saxon Witchcraft (1974). The tradition provides for self initiation as well as
for initiation by and into a coven, and each coven is entirely autonomous. and
has only one degree of rank rather than three. Covens are led by a High
Priestess and/or High Priest who are elected annually by all coven members and
can act either alone or together, and decisions on matters such as wearing robes
or worshipping skyclad are made by the whole coven. Both the High Priest and the
male deity are regarded as equal in importance to the High Priestess and the
female deity. Non-initiates are allowed to attend circles as guests on the
agreement of the whole coven.
Faery Wicca is polytheistic and does not emphasize male/female polarities as
much as other traditions. Nature is honoured and the deities (whose names are
secret) personifying the forces of nature, life, fertility, death and rebirth
are worshipped. Emphasis is placed upon pragmatic magic, self development and
theurgy. It is an initiatory tradition, and thus some material is kept secret
though much is taught openly and has been published.
Although different, the traditions of the Craft share sufficiently similar
deities, forms of worship, language, symbolism and philosophy, such as moon
magic, belief in reincarnation, and concept of deity as personification of
powers of nature or universal life (feminine and masculine, God and Goddess), to
make them recognizable as derivations of one religion.
Witches celebrate eight major festivals (called Sabbats) in common with many
modern Pagan religions; these are the Celtic fire festivals of Imbolc (February
2nd), Beltane (April 30th ), Lughnasadh/Lammas (July 31st), and Samhain (October
31st), based on the agricultural year, plus the winter and summer solstices
(December 21st and June 21st) and the spring and autumn equinoxes (March 21st
and September 21st) (see Paganism). In addition, rituals called esbats are
usually held every two weeks (traditionally according to particular lunar
phases), in which teaching is given and spells are worked.
Witches keep a Book of Shadows in which to write invocations, rituals and other
information and lore. They copy this book from the coven into which they are
initiated, but often add to it as they gain in experience, so that no two books
are exactly alike. The Book of Shadows is traditionally kept secret, and only
ever shown to a fellow initiate; as its name suggests, it is regarded as a
shadowy reflection of the realities of the other world.
History
Wicca is a revived religious tradition, with roots
reaching back into the far distant past. Between about 1480 and 1650, alleged
witches were hunted and either burned or hanged; it has been suggested that as
many as nine million victims died during this time2 , though more recent
estimates favour a figure of 40,000 maximum. The clergy believed that a satanic
conspiracy was attempting to subvert Christianity, and as a result thousands of
ordinary women and, occasionally, men, were persecuted; a scornful glance to a
neighbour could be interpreted as a curse and was sometimes enough to lead to
execution as a witch. The power of women as village wise women, the midwives and
healers, was a source of fear for the patriarchal Christian Church who believed
only their (male) God could make people well again.
The path of the solitary witch, also known as hedgewitchcraft, follows the
traditions of the village wise woman or cunning man, the folk healer, and the
shaman. These were the wise people of the village, to whom local people would
turn for healing, midwifery, fertility spells for both humans, animals and
crops, for blessings and for curses. In recent years there has been an upsurge
in interest in and numbers of solitary witches. who usually work either entirely
alone or with their partner as a couple. In 1994, the Association of Solitary
Hedgewitches (ASH) was established as a contact organization for witches working
alone to make contact with each other in order to share experiences and ideas.
Traditional and Hereditary witchcraft are two overlapping forms of witchcraft
(as Traditional witches may also be from a Hereditary line) which predate the
Gardnerian revival and model their rituals on various Celtic, Scandinavian and
Germanic traditions. Traditional witches were reportedly furious with Gerald
Gardner for popularizing the old religion and regarded such enterprises as his
witchcraft museum on the Isle of Man as a disaster, as both traditions are
extremely secretive. Their traditions tend to be handed down in family lines
However, Wicca began to emerge in its modern form in the 1940s with Gerald
Gardner, becoming more public after the repeal of the witchcraft laws in 1951.
Gardner claimed to have been initiated into a group of hereditary witches in
1939; he wrote about witchcraft in a novel (High Magic's Aid) published in 1949
and after the repeal of the Witchcraft laws published more open accounts of the
Craft (Witchcraft Today in 1954 followed by The Meaning of Witchcraft in 1959).
Witchcraft Today vaulted Gardner into the public spotlight, and he made numerous
media appearances. Both books contained information on the Craft as it existed
at that time and in the following years Gardner initiated many new witches and
covens sprang up operating according to the outlines provided in Gardner's
books.
In the 1960s, Alex Sanders established his own version of the Craft, which
became known as Alexandrian Wicca based along Gardnerian lines. With his wife
Maxine he ran a coven in London, initiating and training many witches.
These are the main Wiccan traditions in Europe, though many modern day witches
have brought together two or more of these traditions, fusing them together and
adding their own input; in this way, the religion continually evolves.
In other countries, traditions have evolved based on these four branches and
drawing in their own local or national folklore and culture. Thus, we find in
Finland traditional Paganism has merged with Wicca to form its own unique style
of witchcraft, whilst the USA has developed Dianic, Faery, and Seax Wicca, all
of which can now be found in Europe.
Dianic Wicca emerged in the USA from the feminist consciousness movement. One of
the first feminist covens was formed in Dallas, Texas by Morgan McFarland and
Mark Roberts in the late 1960s, though it only later came to be called after
Diana, one of the principle names for the Goddess in Witchcraft. The Dianic
movement was continued by other leaders, most notable Zsuzsanna Budapest and
Starhawk. An increasing number of feminists joined Dianic covens, and by the
1980s feminist witchcraft was the fastest growing segment of the Craft in the
U.S.. The Dianic Tradition has spread to Europe, but covens are presently far
less numerous and tend not to be as militant as their American counterparts,
allowing men an equal role in worship, and worshipping both the Goddess and the
Horned God as her consort.
Faery Wicca was developed by Americans Victor and Cora Anderson and Gwyddion
Pendderwen in the 1970s, as an oral Tradition based on the ancient myth of a
race of people skilled in magic, healing and crafts, who arrived in Ireland
bringing with them a Great Mother Goddess called Dana. They became known as the
Tuatha De Danaan, the Tribe of Dana, who eventually retreated into the
Otherworld, the World of Faery. The tradition was originally very small and
secretive, but many of the fundamentals of the tradition have become widespread
through the writings of Starhawk, who is an initiate of Faery Wicca.
The Seax-Wica, or Saxon Wicca tradition was devised in 1973 by Ray Buckland, a
former Gardnerian High Priest, who became disillusioned with the Craft and the
corruption he saw in it - the three degrees of initiation which he felt
encouraged egotistical behaviour, and the secrecy which prevented many genuine
seekers of the Craft from becoming witches. It is based on the old Saxon
religion, and the four principle deities of Woden, Frig or Freya, Thunor, and
Tiw, but it is not perceived as a continuation or recreation of this.
Symbols
Perhaps the most
widespread symbol used by the Wiccan religion is that of the pentagram, the
five-pointed star Each point of the star represents one of the four elements
-earth, air, fire and water - and the fifth the element of aethyr,or spirit,
which rules the other four. The symbol represents the subjection of the material
world to the spiritual realm.
Other important symbols include the full moon with a crescent (waxing and
waning) moon on either side to represent the Goddess, and a circle surmounted
with curved horns to symbolise the God.
The symbol of Seax Wica is a circle containing a crescent moon and eight rays,
representing the sun, the moon, and the eight sabbats (the Wheel of the Year).
In Faery Wicca the iron and pearl pentagrams are used as meditational symbols to
explore the self and restore ones balance with the universe. The five points of
the iron pentagram represent sex, self, passion, pride and power; those of the
pearl pentagram represent love, wisdom, knowledge, law and power.
Adherents Since witches tend to be secretive, following initiatory traditions and having no central organising institution, there are no official figures available. However, witchcraft is very widespread and can be found, in one form or another, all over the world.
Headquarters None . Further information regarding solitary witchcraft can be obtained from the Association of Solitary Hedgewitches, 2, Kent View Road, Vange, Basildon, Essex.
Witchfinder General - Matthew Hopkins
Matthew Hopkins is perhaps the most famous of the witch finders of 17th century
Britain. During his career as a witch-finder Hopkins had between 200 and 400
people executed for witchcraft.
This reign of terror began in Manningtree, Essex, in 1644. Old one-legged
Elizabeth Clarke was the first victim of Hopkins' search for enemies of God, by
the time Clarke's interrogation was over 31 accomplices had been named.
The reputation and horror grows Hopkins' career began modestly, but as his
reputation grew, so did his ego. He began to proclaim himself Witch finder
General and commanded large expenses for his work. At a time when average daily
wages were around two pence, Hopkins would take up over £20 for ridding a
village of witchcraft.
While not strictly guilty of torture, which was forbidden under law, Hopkins and
his minions used sleep deprivation to secure confessions. While appearing
outwardly honest and earnest in his beliefs he began to use trickery in his
search for convictions.
It was believed that witches' spots did not bleed, and so Hopkins made use of a
knife with a retractable blade that wouldn't pierce the skin of the accused.
As the carnage continued some Villages would not allow Hopkins to enter.
Resentment was growing against his methods. Reverend John Gaule of Great
Staughton wrote a pamphlet in 1646 called "Select Cases of Conscience towards
Witches and Witchcraft" exposing Hopkins' methods. He also preached against
Hopkins suggesting that the Witch-Finder General may actually be a witch
himself.
Hopkins did publish a reply, "The Discovery of Witchcraft", but his reputation
was ruined. Fewer towns and villages were willing to accept his services. His
demise, perhaps aptly, is shrouded in mystery. One simple explanation is that he
died in bed of tuberculosis. The other version of events is that he was set upon
by villagers, ironically accusing him of witchcraft, and he was lynched.
Matthew Hopkins, d. 1647, was an English witch hunter whose career flourished in the time of the English Civil War. He held, or claimed to hold, the office of "Witch-finder General", though this was not a title ever bestowed by Parliament (despite him having to have some form of official jurisdiction), conducting witch-hunts in the counties of Suffolk, Essex, Norfolk and other eastern counties of England.
Matthew Hopkins, born in Great Wenham, Suffolk, was a shipping clerk and thought to be the son of James Hopkins, a Puritan clergyman; Hopkins is commonly thought to have been a lawyer, however, there is scant evidence to suggest this was the case. According to his book The Discovery of Witches (not to be confused with Reginald Scot's book The Discovery of Witchcraft) he began his career as a witch-finder when he overheard various women discussing their meetings with the Devil in March 1644 in Manningtree, a town near Colchester, where he was living at the time. As a result of Hopkins's accusations, nineteen alleged witches were hanged and four more died in prison.
Hopkins was soon travelling over eastern England, claiming (perhaps) truthfully to be officially commissioned by Parliament to uncover and prosecute witches. His witch-finding career spanned from 1645 to 1647. While torture was technically unlawful in England, he used various methods of browbeating to extract confessions from some of his victims. He used sleep deprivation as a sort of bloodless torture. He also used a "swimming" test to see if the accused would float or sink in water, the theory being that witches had renounced their baptism, so that all water would supernaturally reject them. He also employed "witch prickers" who pricked the accused with knives and special needles, looking for the Devil's mark that was supposed to be dead to all feeling and would not bleed. It was believed that the witch's familiar would drink their blood from the mark as milk from a teat.
Hopkins and his co-worker John Stearne, together with female assistants, were well paid for their work, earning £20 from one visit to Stow market, Suffolk, which was then more than a year's wages for most people.
Samuel Butler's satire Hudibras commented on Hopkins's activity, saying:
- Has not this present Parliament
- A Lieger to the Devil sent,
- Fully impowr'd to treat about
- Finding revolted witches out
- And has not he, within a year,
- Hang'd threescore of 'em in one shire?
- Some only for not being drown'd,
- And some for sitting above ground,
- Whole days and nights, upon their breeches,
- And feeling pain, were hang'd for witches.
- And some for putting knavish tricks
- Upon green geese and turky-chicks?
- And pigs, that suddenly deceast
- Of griefs unnat'ral, as he guest;
- Who after prov'd himself a witch
- And made a rod for his own breech.
The last line refers to a tradition that disgruntled villagers caught Hopkins and subjected him to his own "swimming" test: he floated, and it was therefore suspected that he was hanged for witchcraft himself but, again, no evidence of this ever happening exists. However, it is believed by most historians that Hopkins actually died of illness (possibly tuberculosis) in his home. The parish records of Manningtree in Essex record his burial in August of 1647.
Witch Hunting and Persecutions: top
Impact of Malleus Maleficorum on persecution of witches in
England
Bibliographie de la chasse aux sorcières
Malleus Maleficorum was a highly significant factor in shaping the ideas behind the sixteenth century persecution, due to its influence on beliefs about witchcraft and about how to deal with problems of witches. The Malleus Maleficorum was published in 1486 and the persecution of witches began in earnest at about this time. This is not to imply direct causality. The Malleus Maleficorum was as much the product of a general climate in which the persecution of witches took place as its instigator. However, the Malleus Maleficorum was influential in expressing and shaping the ideas that underpinned persecution of witches throughout Europe. The fact of widely varying levels of witch persecution throughout Europe as a whole and and even within different localities in England suggests that there were other influences shaping the nature of the persecution of witches. This paper will consider the role of the Malleus Maleficorum in England, arguing that its influence was mediated by a combination of historical factors
The Inquisition was set up in 1199. However, persecution of
witches did not reach a significant level begin until the late 15th century,
after the publication of the Malleus Maleficorum and the issue of papal bulls
against witches. An important Bull was that of Pope Innocent II (1484) who
ordered the inquisitors to seek out witches and defined witchcraft as a heresy..
Witches and The Devil
Some of the qualities associated with witchcraft before the publication of the Malleus Maleficorum were expressed in a letter to the inquisitors by Pope Eugenius IV in 1437 (Oldridge, 2002: 4) The letter refers to sacrifice to demons, the concept of a written contract that grants powers to do malicious deeds, the use of wax images, the reversal of Christian symbols and perversion of Christian liturgy. These formed most of the "ingredients of the Renaissance concept of witchcraft" (Oldridge,2002, 14) The 1484 Bull referred to the use of witchcraft to do malicious acts to people and animals. It also spoke of witches consorting with devils, incubi and succubi and of "preventing conceptions" (Hart, 1971: 16)
Other features of the beliefs about witches were that they met at night in groups, sabbats, when they took part in a wide range of shocking and superhuman activities The sources of these beliefs were various, from local folk-beliefs to classical Roman and Greek myths. However, it would be mistaken to imagine that the belief that humans have supernatural powers to do evil was unique to Renaissance and medieval Europe. Anthropologists have identified and studied such beliefs in almost all societies. (Thomas, K ,1971) Beliefs about magic and supernatural powers are not in themselves sufficient to explain persecution. Trevor-Roper argued that set of folk beliefs about magic could not explain the origins of the early modern witch crazes. (Trevor-Roper, 1967) The significant factors in determining whether such a set of beliefs is expressed in violent action against those perceived as having supernatural powers must be sought in the historically specific features of a given situation.
There was widespread acceptance of belief in magical effects
- expressed in a variety of forms and at all levels in society. Science and
magic overlapped- chemistry grew out of alchemy, for instance. The aristocracy
were as likely to consult magicians as poor were to call upon the aid of a local
witch. (Queen Elizabeth and John Dee, for example.) The distinction between
magical and religious thought is very difficult to make, in any case. It usually
reflects to the level of social power of those who make the definition. However,
at this time, the social power of the formal Churches was not safe anywhere in
Europe. The Reformation had split the Christian world into two camps. Catholic
leaders sought to hold on to their power in those countries where it had not
been overthrown (such as Spain) and to reclaim it in those countries where
Protestants had won control. Protestant rulers, such as Elizabeth, constantly
faced with attack from Catholics and sought to extend their influence by
encouraging the spread of Protestantism. Neither Catholic nor Protestant
Churches were stable. Drives against heresy could represent attempts to avoid
the further fragmentation of beliefs.
Castles - Plague - Witch Trials - the Church - Royalty - Link opens in new
window
At the same time, ideas about the Devil and devils were being developed and expressed in numerous publications, including those listing the various devils that witches dealt with (Hart, 1971: 16) Hart argued that the "enormous literature" on witchcraft (Hart, 1971: 31) had begun to contain new elements - covens, Black sabbats, familiars and pacts with the devil. The latter became the central issue in the persecution in Protestant Europe. Its existence allowed both Catholic and protestant religions to denounce witchcraft as heresy.
Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, the authors of the Malleus Maleficorum were German inquisitors. They produced the text that became the central reference. The authors defined witchcraft as heresy. At the same time, they specifically defined witchcraft as female. "It is better called the heresy of witches than of wizards, since the name is taken from the more powerful party."
A central element in the Malleus Maleficorum is its quite astonishing targeting of women, and specifically midwives "who surpass all others in wickedness" (Malleus Maleficorum Part 1 Question VI) The text expresses the idea that more witches are women and explains it in terms very much focussed on female sexuality. They refer to such authoritative sources as the Bible, Cicero, Seneca and others to justify the argument that women are much more prone to vice than are men - feebler in intellect, more prone to wickedness and conclude that "All witchcraft comes from carnal lust which is in women insatiable." The document prefigures the enormous numbers of women who would be tortured, burned or hanged in following century. However, it cannot be claimed that the Malleus brought about the fear and hatred of women that was such a clear feature of the persecution. Rather it reflected a view of women that was already prevalent in the church and the educated world, as attested by the number of authorities that the authors refer to.
Why did the concept of a witch cult become credible to educated Europeans? Anglo argued that the Church's authority gave the evidence reality. Evidence for satanic witchcraft was derived from scripture and the writing of church fathers. "These citations were generally regarded as authoritative and carried at least as much weight as empirical investigations into the alleged activities of witches" (Oldridge, 2002: 17) Thus, the Malleus Maleficorum made a strong case, as its citations were beyond question. Oldridge argued that the persecution became much harder to pursue once the concept of empirical evidence became more widespread in the later 17th century. This argument seems somewhat circular. If the persecution remained as strong, a preference among educated people for empirical evidence and rationality would have not been able to develop.
Oldridge argued, from a technological perspective, that the development of print made it possible for the views expressed in the Malleus Maleficorum to be widely disseminated and for news of sensational trials to be distributed, thus spreading the ideas that fuelled the cult. "The result was a largely self-referential and self-perpetuating body of literature, which encouraged exactly the kinds of confessions that could be fed back into the genre as 'evidence'" (Oldridge, 2002: 17-18).
Why therefore did the impact of the Malleus Maleficorum strike England less forcefully than it struck the rest of Europe, particularly Germany or Scotland? One argument is the distinction between Catholic and Protestant religions. The intense hatred of women which is expressed in the Malleus Maleficorum can be understood partly as the product of a religion based on a male priesthood required to be celibate. The philosophy that underpins such religious practice is inevitably likely to appeal to some men who are misogynistic and is unlikely to be challenged when celibacy is a core part of the faith. The triumph of celibacy was still relatively recent in the Roman Church's history (established about three centuries earlier.) In Protestant England, a celibate priesthood was no longer an issue. Hence, levels of religious misogyny were probably lower, at the institutional level.
In England, heresy was not such a pressing concern. The Inquisition was the creation of the Catholic Church; its objective of rooting out heresy, that became mingled with the witch craze, was not the objective of the English church or state. In England, as compared to Germany, Scotland and France, for instance, witches were hanged rather than burned. Torture was not routine. The stress on English trials was largely on the accusations of causing malicious acts Maleficorum, rather than on heresy or on pacts with the devil. In contrast, in Germany and Scotland for instance, "The worst atrocities were committed in the name of religion" as the accused witches were searched for marks and tortured for evidence of having made pacts with the devil, the ultimate heresy. (Hart,1971 :108)
In England, witch persecutions largely focussed on locally unpopular women in small towns and villages. Conviction levels were low even in the assizes which covered the areas of most activity, such as Essex. Without the formal apparatus of the church - in the person of the feared Inquisitors and the wholehearted backing of the state - locally malicious prosecutions tended to reflect local accusations of having committed malicious acts. Even at the beginning of the persecutions, there were sceptics, such as Reginald Scot. Scot pointed out that burning of all witches would still have no effect in preventing misfortunes such as the worsening climate of the time. He also pointed out that old, poor, sullen, mad and superstitious women were easily convinced of their own guilt, that such women would utter curses to prevent themselves being injured by others and that those who feared them could easily believe their misfortunes were due to the curses. (Scot,1584). It is unlikely that this scepticism was widespread. However, the fact that it could be expressed at all illustrates the different intellectual climate of England, where the Inquisition - and a probable accusation of heresy for protesting the witch persecution - was not a constant cause for fear.
Thus, the Malleus Maleficarum was not the direct source of the impetus to persecute witches, and was less significant in Protestant England than in Scotland or continental Europe. However, it shaped cultural views on witchcraft, identifying the features which were to become central to the persecution, providing witch finders with a template to guide their investigations.
The Pendle Witches: A true story of murder, witchcraft and
revenge.
The Pendle Witches or Lancashire Witches were the most famous witches in English
legal history
The Lancashire Witch Trial
In the year 1612, at Lancaster gaol, in the English county of Lancashire, ten
men and women were hanged for the crime of witchcraft.
The Pendle Witches, as they became known, were believed to
have been responsible for the murder by witchcraft of seventeen people in and
around the Forest of Pendle.
Thirteen Witches in Pendle
There were in total thirteen Pendle Witches: Alizon Device, Elizabeth Device,
James Device, Anne Whittle, alias Chattox, Anne Redferne, Alice Nutter,
Katherine Hewitt, John Bulcock, Jane Bulcock & Isobel Robey were the ten hanged
at Lancaster gaol.
Elizabeth Southerns, alias Demdike, died in Lancaster Gaol
awaiting trial, but was nevertheless considered to be a witch on the basis of
evidence already given. Jennet Preston, who lived just over the Lancashire
border, was tried in Yorkshire and hanged at York in 1612. Finally, Margaret
Pearson was found guilty of witchcraft at Lancaster, but not murder, and
received a sentence of one years imprisonment.
Murder by Witchcraft
The Pendle Witches were accused of selling their souls to familiar spirits or
devils who appeared to them in human and animal form. In return for their souls,
it was believed that the witches received the power to kill or lame who they
pleased.
The usual method of murder, described in Demdike's
confession, was to make an effigy of the intended victim, known as a 'picture of
clay'. The image was then crumbled or burned over a period of time, causing the
victim to fall ill and die.
The Witches of Malkin Tower
The family at the centre of the witchcraft allegations: Alizon Device, James
Device, Elizabeth Device and Demdike lived at a place called Malkin Tower.
Demdike, who was in here eighties, was the head of the family and was rumoured
locally to be a very powerful witch.
An important meeting took place at Malkin Tower on Good
Friday in 1612. The meeting, believed to have been a witches Shabbat, was
described to the authorities by James Device. Many of those who attended where
later hanged.
A Witches Feud
Demdike had once been a close friend of another reputed witch Chattox, but they
fell out and then feuded bitterly. The dispute between Demdike and Chattox was
probably a reason why they and their respective families were willing to make
incriminating statements against one another.
When Demdike died in gaol, Chattox changed here story,
claiming Demdike was responsible for enticing here into witchcraft.
The Wonderful Discovery...
So much is known about the Pendle Witches because the proceedings of the
Lancashire trial where recorded by the clerk of the court Thomas Potts and
published in the book: The Wonderful Discoveries of Witches in the County of
Lancaster.
The majority of the evidence came from the confessions of
just four of the accused: Alizon Device, her brother James Device, their
grandmother Demdike, and their enemy Chattox.
Witchcraft: fact or fiction?
Nobody knows what possessed Alizon and James Device, Demdike and Chattox to make the extraordinary statements that they did. Torture was not used in England to extract confessions from witches as it was on mainland Europe. Towards the end of the trial the prisoners would have confessed in the hope of receiving mercy, but the most important confessions were given pre-trial and seemingly under very little duress.
The Pendle Witches incriminated each other, perhaps in the hope of saving themselves, but also gave remarkable accounts of their own activities. Had they remained silent there would very probably have been no trial and no executions.
Alison Device gave her first damning account of witchcraft quite voluntarily, and seems to have genuinely believed in her own guilt and that of her family's.
Some suspected witches did protest their innocence to the end and others where acquitted when evidence against them was found to have been fabricated. The trials however dubious by today's standards were not a forgone conclusion.
NB: Modern witches or 'Wiccans' do not worship the devil, who they do not believe exists, and their code of conduct forbids them from working harmful magic.
The Bill ayest conjuraracons & wichecraftes and sorcery and enchantmants.
Where dyvers and sundrie persones unlawfully have devised and practised Invocacons and conjuracons of Sprites, ptending by such meanes to understande and get Knowlege for their owne lucre in what place treasure of golde and Silver shulde or mought be founde or had in the earthe or other secrete places, and also have used and occupied wichecraftes inchauntement and sorceries to the distruccon of their neighbours persones and goodes, And for execucon of their saide falce devyses and practises have made or caused to be made dyvers Images and pictures of men women childrene Angelles or develles beastes or fowles, and also have made Crownes Septures Swordes rynges glasses and other things, and other things, and gyving faithe & credit to suche fantasticall practises have dygged up and pulled downe an infinite nombre of Crosses within this Realme, and taken upon them to declare and tell where thinges lost or stollen shulde be become; whiche thinges cannot be used and exercised but to the great offence of Godes lawe, hurt and damage of the Kinges Subjectes, and losse of the sowles of suche Offenders, to the greate dishonor of God, Infamy and disquyetnes of the Realme: FOR REFORMACON wherof be it enacted by the Kyng oure Soveraigne Lorde with thassent of the Lordes spuall and temporall and the Comons in this present Parliament assembled and by auctoritie of the same, that yf any persone or persones. after the first daye of Maye next comyng, use devise practise or exercise, or cause to be used devysed practised or exercised, any Invocacons or conjuracons of Sprites wichecraftes enchauntmentes or sorceries, to thentent to get or fynde money or treasure,or to waste consume or destroy any persone in his bodie membres or goodes, or to pvoke any persone to unlawfull love, or for any other unlawfull intente or purpose, or by occacon or color of suche thinges or any of them. or for dispite of Cryste, or for lucre of money, dygge up or pull downe any Crosse or Crosses, or by suche Invocacons or conjuracons of Sprites wichecraftes enchauntementes or sorcerie or any of them take upon them to tell or declare where goodes stollen or lost shall become, That then all and every suche Offence and Offences, frome the saide first day of May next comyng shalbe demyde accepted and adjuged Felonye; And that all and every persone and persones offendyng as is abovesaide their Councellors Abettors and Procurors and every of them from the saide first day of Maye shallbe demyde accepted and adjuged a Felon and Felones; And thoffender and offenders contrarie to this Acte. being therof lawfullie convicte before suche as shall have power and auctoritie to here and determyn felonyes, shall have and suffre such paynes of deathe losse and forfaytures of their lands tentes goodes and Catalles as in cases of felonie by the course of the Comon lawes of this Realme, And also shall lose p’vilege of Clergie and Sayntuarie.